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Tag: Science
The science of the “X-ray vision” that reveals the magma beneath Yellowstone
Yellowstone Caldera Chronicles is a weekly column written by scientists and collaborators of the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. This week’s contribution is from Scott K. Johnson, Science Communication Associate at EarthScope Consortium.
Jeopardy is unique for its question-to-the-answer format, with contestants using a clue like “this animal starred in a 1975 Steven Spielberger film and can constantly regrow lost teeth” to correctly respond “what is a shark?” The geophysical techniques that allow us to image the magma beneath Yellowstone―as in a recent study that provided a view of multiple separate magma reservoirs― work similarly. These studies are often of great public interest, producing visuals that are (relatively) easy to understand. But how exactly do they work?
This example shows areas where seismic waves travel more quickly in blue, and slower areas in red, beneath the western United States. Faults are black lines, and blue line is the San Andreas Fault. You can explore the data at any depth beneath the surface with EarthScope’s velocity model viewer (https://observablehq.com/@earthscope/emc-horizontal-slicer). Seeing below the surface is the realm of tomography―in medical imaging, the “CT” in “CT scan” stands for Computed Tomography―which can be done in several ways. The most common method uses shaking measured by seismometers to reveal variations in the physical properties of the Earth.
The similarity to Jeopardy is that these techniques work backwards―what we call “inversion.” Because we can’t directly take a measuring tape underground and inspect a magma reservoir, we have to rely on the fact that this magma reservoir can affect measurements of other things, like seismic waves that pass through. If we knew exactly what was underground, we could pretty clearly predict its effect on the seismic waves reaching nearby seismometers. But instead, the inverse solution is to take the pattern of measured seismic waves and work backwards to find a plausible model of the conditions underground that would cause that pattern.
It’s a bit like working out where a traffic jam is occurring in town based solely on how late each of your coworkers arrives home at the end of the workday. Knowing that they all left work at 5:15, and knowing which part of town each one was headed for, you could probably figure out where the slowdown is based on the fact that two people were delayed 15 minutes, one was delayed 5 minutes, and one experienced no delay at all.
In fact, a common method of seismic tomography involves measuring the travel time for seismic waves from earthquakes and noting where they arrive at seismometers “late.” This allows us to map out regions of rock where seismic waves travel more quickly or more slowly. That information can then be turned into estimates of physical properties like temperature, rock type, density, or the presence (and amount) of magma. The more seismometers recording data and the more earthquakes that are measured, the better the resolution of the map.
The same idea can be applied in other ways to seismic data. We can look at the details of the wiggles on the seismometer rather than just their arrival time, for example, seeing which areas of the Earth dampen the seismic waves and which ring like a bell. Or we can replace the earthquake with another source of shaking energy, like a truck-mounted piston that thumps the ground, the constant background din of a busy highway, or even the global noise created by ocean waves. Through different approaches, we can image something local, like a magma reservoir, or we can image the entire planet―this is how we know about the properties of the mantle, outer core, and inner core of the Earth.
Schematic showing magma storage beneath Yellowstone caldera. Nested calderas resulting from the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, Mesa Falls Tuff, and Lava Creek Tuff caldera forming eruptions are shown as solid black, green, and orange lines, respectively. C1 and C2 represent bodies of basaltic magma and C3 and C5-C7 represent rhyolitic magma bodies beneath Yellowstone caldera. Magnetotelluric stations occupied during experiment are shown as magenta triangles. Sour Creek and Mallard Lake resurgent domes are shown as purple lines. The locations of Lower Geyser Basin (LGB), Norris Geyser Basin (NGB), and Hot Springs Basin (HSB) are shown. Figure is from Bennington et al., “The progression of basaltic–rhyolitic melt storage at Yellowstone Caldera.” Nature 637:8044 (2025), 97-102. The recent image of Yellowstone’s magma system was created from yet another kind of data. Instead of using seismometers that measure shaking, magnetotelluric instruments were used to measure the electrical conductivity beneath the ground.
The Sun’s energy and also lightning around the world induce electrical and magnetic fields within the Earth, but the strength of these fields varies from place to place depending on the conductivity of the material beneath the surface. And since measurements at different frequencies relate to the conductivity at different depths, we can collect quite a lot of information through magnetotelluric measurements. Magma has a much higher conductivity than solid rock, so the magnetotelluric technique is of obvious use around volcanoes.
The inversion in the case of magnetotelluric data works out the 3-D pattern of conductivity underground that can explain the measurements made at the surface. And again, the more surface measurements you have close together, the more detailed the 3-D image becomes.
All kinds of tomography have been employed at Yellowstone to give us a much richer understanding of the magma system that lies beneath the ground. Similar studies have been done at other volcanoes as well—like Mount St. Helens. Even on a much smaller scale, these techniques have been used to image the hot-water “plumbing” beneath individual geysers in Yellowstone, giving us insights into the reasons for their behavior.
Permanent monitoring networks of instruments like seismometers around Yellowstone help make this possible―sometimes supplemented by temporary additions of even more instruments for higher-resolution imaging. The end result is a better understanding of what the system looks like beneath the surface, how it works, and how it may behave over time, which is critical to the mission of keeping people out of harm’s way―out of jeopardy, you might say.
Yellowstone National Park is home to one of the most powerful and active volcanic systems in the world. Beneath the surface lies a massive reservoir of magma that fuels the park’s famous geysers and hot springs. But how do scientists know what lies beneath the surface? The answer lies in the science of “X-ray vision.”Using a technique known as seismic tomography, scientists are able to create detailed images of the subsurface by analyzing the way seismic waves travel through the Earth. Just like how X-rays can reveal the bones inside our bodies, seismic waves can reveal the magma chambers and pathways beneath Yellowstone.
By placing seismometers around the park and monitoring the vibrations created by earthquakes and other sources, scientists are able to map out the structure of the Earth’s crust and mantle in incredible detail. This allows them to pinpoint the location and size of magma chambers, as well as the pathways that magma takes as it rises to the surface.
This “X-ray vision” has revolutionized our understanding of Yellowstone’s volcanic system, helping scientists to better predict when and where eruptions may occur. By studying the complex network of magma beneath the park, researchers are able to gain valuable insights into the inner workings of one of the world’s most fascinating geological hotspots.
So the next time you visit Yellowstone National Park, remember that beneath your feet lies a world of fiery molten rock, just waiting to be revealed by the science of “X-ray vision.”
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Yellowstone magma, X-ray vision, geology, volcanic activity, scientific discovery, seismic imaging, underground exploration, geological insights, volcanic hotspots, magma chambers, Yellowstone National Park, subterranean research, geophysical imaging
#science #Xray #vision #reveals #magma #beneath #YellowstoneOpinion | If Kennedy Is Blind to Science, Why Entrust Him With Our Health?
Robert F. Kennedy Jr. used to impress me. In the early 2000s, he did excellent work as an environmental lawyer taking on industrial hog farms that were fouling creeks and rivers, and we talked about making a visit together to North Carolina to document the pollution.
But then Kennedy began to urge me to write about childhood vaccines, citing discredited arguments that they caused autism. I had read the vaccine research and considered his views uninformed, conspiratorial and dangerous, and his dogmatism soured me on his judgment in general. I decided it would be inappropriate to quote someone with such a mind-set.
And if a person isn’t qualified to be quoted in a column, he probably isn’t the best choice to run America’s health programs.
That’s particularly true because one of the biggest potential threats to this country — albeit one difficult to gauge — is an avian flu pandemic, for bird flu is mutating and spreading to cows and other mammals. If there is a pandemic, then vaccines will be essential. Perhaps the single best thing that President Trump did in his first term was to start Operation Warp Speed, a public-private partnership that accelerated the development of Covid-19 vaccines and saved many lives.
What would happen if there were a need for another Operation Warp Speed, but this time the point man on health was suspicious of vaccines — including those that arrested the last pandemic?
The coronavirus vaccine is “the deadliest vaccine ever made,” Kennedy falsely claimed, and in May 2021 he petitioned the government to revoke authorization for it — even though by then the vaccine already had saved 140,000 lives, one study found.
Kennedy has also claimed that the polio vaccine — one of the great triumphs of the 20th century — may have caused cancers “that killed many, many, many, many, many more people than polio ever did.” The Times has reported that a lawyer close to Kennedy, Aaron Siri, who is helping him pick health officials for the Trump administration, has petitioned the government to revoke approval for the polio vaccine.
Siri has also petitioned the government to revoke approval for the hepatitis B vaccine and a pause in the distribution of about a dozen other vaccines.
Kennedy’s take? “I love Aaron Siri,” Kennedy has said.
Kennedy now insists to senators that he is not “anti-vaccine” and would not discourage their use. Really? In 2021 he said on a podcast that he actively discouraged parents from vaccinating children and urged others to do the same.
“Our job is to resist and to talk about it to everybody,” he said. “If you’re walking down the street — and I do this now myself, which is, you know, I don’t want to do — I’m not a busybody. I see somebody on a hiking trail carrying a little baby and I say to him, ‘Better not get him vaccinated.’”
“Don’t keep your mouth shut anymore,” he advised. “Confront everybody on it.”
Kennedy has said that doctors “butchered all these children” by vaccinating them. The nonprofit that he founded, Children’s Health Defense, sells baby onesies with messages such as “No Vax No Problem.”
Even now that he is under great pressure, as he bobs and weaves in hopes of getting confirmed, Kennedy won’t renounce the discredited theory that vaccines cause autism.
The idea of Kennedy’s running health programs is particularly worrisome because the administration may not have much medical guidance. The White House science adviser isn’t actually a scientist. Trump is pulling out of the World Health Organization, whose global flu surveillance network helps develop flu vaccines, and the administration even directed employees from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention not to email contacts at the World Health Organization.
Kennedy has good ideas about promoting healthy school lunches and discouraging ultraprocessed foods. He’s right to ask questions about why there are increases in obesity, diabetes and autism (many scientists suspect that one factor may be environmental toxins such as endocrine disruptors). But Kennedy’s passion for many years has been hostility to vaccines, bundled in certitude and nastiness.
This is not simply a quest for vaccine safety, as Kennedy tries to suggest. It is a misguided and dangerous campaign to undermine confidence in vaccines. A woman dies every two hours in the United States from cervical cancer, which is almost entirely preventable with HPV vaccinations — yet Kennedy has backed a lawsuit against the maker of the vaccine.
The problems go beyond vaccines, of course. Kennedy is a conspiracy theorist who says he doesn’t “take sides” in the “debates” about who was behind 9/11, who argues that AIDS may not be caused by H.I.V., who suggested darkly that Covid-19 was engineered to spare Chinese people and Ashkenazi Jews, who claimed that Lyme disease is likely a military bioweapon. Some of this is bigotry; all of it is nonsense.
On top of his ideological excesses, Kennedy doesn’t understand our health care system. In his hearings, he muddled Medicare and Medicaid. He represents the apotheosis of the politicization of science; he is our own Lysenko.
I hope senators will protect American kids from Robert F. Kennedy Jr.
Opinion | If Kennedy Is Blind to Science, Why Entrust Him With Our Health?Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has been a vocal opponent of vaccines and has spread misinformation about their safety and efficacy. In light of his anti-science views, it begs the question: why would we trust someone like Kennedy with our health?
Kennedy’s disregard for scientific evidence and his promotion of dangerous conspiracy theories should be alarming to anyone who values public health. Vaccines have been proven time and time again to be safe and effective in preventing the spread of deadly diseases, yet Kennedy continues to push his anti-vaccine agenda.
When it comes to matters of health, we need leaders who are guided by evidence-based research and who prioritize the well-being of the public. Kennedy’s track record of spreading misinformation and fear-mongering about vaccines is not only irresponsible, but it puts lives at risk.
It’s time to hold our leaders accountable and demand that they prioritize science and facts when making decisions that impact our health. Kennedy’s dangerous rhetoric should not be given a platform, and we must ensure that those in power are committed to protecting public health, not undermining it.
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RFK Jr. kept asking to see the science that vaccines were safe. After he saw it, he dismissed it
WASHINGTON (AP) — The man who hopes to be President Donald Trump’s health secretary repeatedly asked to see “data” or “science” showing vaccines are safe – but when an influential Republican senator showed him evidence, he dismissed it.
Robert F. Kennedy Jr. spent two days this week insisting to senators that he’s not anti-vaccine. He said that he instead supports vaccinations and will follow the science in overseeing the $1.7 trillion Department of Health and Human Services, which, among other duties, oversees vaccine research, approval and recommendations.
But Kennedy repeatedly refused to acknowledge scientific consensus that childhood vaccines don’t cause autism and that COVID-19 vaccines saved millions of lives, and he falsely asserted the government has no good vaccine safety monitoring. While appearing to ignore mainstream science, he cited flawed or tangential research to make his points, such as suggesting Black people may need different vaccines than whites.
His responses raised concern among health experts that Kennedy lacks basic skills needed for the job.
“He ignores science. He cherry-picks sometimes fraudulent studies. Sometimes he takes well-done studies and takes little pieces of them out of context,” said Dr. Sean O’Leary of the American Academy of Pediatrics.
He worries that Kennedy could further damage public confidence in vaccines and “we will see return of diseases that we really haven’t seen much of and unfortunately children will suffer.”
Kennedy “in many ways demonstrated his lack of capacity to really understand some details around science and evidence that I think he would really need to know,” said Dr. Georges Benjamin of the American Public Health Association.
The science on vaccines is clear to doctors and scientists — but not to Kennedy
Sen. Bill Cassidy, a Louisiana Republican and physician, said the science is clear that measles and other childhood vaccines are safe and not linked to autism.
Kennedy said if shown the data he would recommend those vaccines and “not only will I do that but I will apologize for any statements that misled people otherwise.”
So Cassidy pulled out and read aloud definitive scientific conclusions that vaccines don’t cause autism. Kennedy rebuffed him, instead mentioning a recent paper that outside experts have called fundamentally flawed — and Cassidy agreed “has some issues” – in an attempt to counter decades of rigorous studies.
The senator told Kennedy his history of “undermining confidence in vaccines with unfounded or misleading arguments concerns me” – and risks casting “a shadow over President Trump’s legacy” if people die of vaccine-preventable diseases should he become health secretary.
Sen. Maggie Hassan, a Democrat from New Hampshire, said there’s a real-world ramification for “re-litigating and churning settled science” – diverting money and time that could be spent finding the real cause of autism.
Kennedy ignored science showing COVID-19 vaccines saved millions of lives
Kennedy claimed there’s no good surveillance system to know that COVID-19 vaccines are safe and lifesaving.
The U.S. tracks vaccine safety through multiple monitoring systems including electronic medical records from a list of health systems. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also checks how vaccines fare internationally, such as during the pandemic when large databases from Israel and the U.K. helped reinforce that the new mRNA vaccines were safe and lowering deaths from the coronavirus.
“You’re applying for the job — clearly you should know this,” said Democratic Sen. Bernie Sanders of Vermont. “The scientific community has established that COVID vaccines saved millions of lives and you’re casting doubt.”
Kennedy declines to back a vaccine that prevents cancer in women
AAP’s O’Leary said there are about 35,000 cases of cancer related to the HPV virus that could be prevented by that vaccine, including 4,000 deaths per year. “We are already seeing decreases in the number of cases of HPV-related cancers as a result of HPV vaccination.”
Kennedy didn’t answer directly when asked if he stood by claims that the HPV vaccine could cause cancer or other disease. He instead brought up a pending lawsuit and suggested a jury — of non-scientists — would decide.
Kennedy’s unfounded comment about race and vaccine schedules
Sen. Angela Alsobrooks, a Maryland Democrat, asked Kennedy about prior comments that Black people might need a different vaccination schedule than whites. Alsobrooks, who is Black, asked how Kennedy thought she should have been vaccinated differently.
Kennedy referred to some earlier papers suggesting people of African-American ancestry had a stronger immune response to measles and rubella vaccines than white people.
Vaccination recommendations aren’t based on race but on biological factors such as someone’s age and risk of a specific disease. Some studies show Black Americans are more hesitant than whites to receive certain vaccines.
“That is so dangerous,” Alsobrooks told Kennedy.
“There’s no evidence that there needs to be a different vaccine schedule based on race,” said Dr. Amesh Adalja of the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. Such statements could make different populations wrongly believe “well, maybe I don’t need as many vaccines” as are recommended.
___
AP Medical Writer Carla K. Johnson contributed.
___
The Associated Press Health and Science Department receives support from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Science and Educational Media Group and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The AP is solely responsible for all content.
Robert F. Kennedy Jr., a prominent anti-vaccine advocate, has long been questioning the safety of vaccines and demanding to see the scientific evidence that supports their use. However, after finally being presented with the evidence, Kennedy Jr. dismissed it as unreliable and biased.In a recent interview, Kennedy Jr. admitted that he had been given access to numerous studies and reports that demonstrated the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. Despite this, he continued to spread misinformation and doubt about their use, claiming that the science was flawed and manipulated by pharmaceutical companies.
This revelation raises questions about Kennedy Jr.’s motives and credibility in the anti-vaccine movement. It also highlights the importance of critically evaluating sources of information and not blindly following individuals who may have their own agendas.
In the end, the evidence speaks for itself, and the overwhelming consensus among scientists and medical professionals is that vaccines are safe and essential for public health. It is crucial to rely on evidence-based information and not be swayed by misinformation and fearmongering.
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RFK Jr., vaccines, vaccine safety, science, vaccination, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., vaccine skepticism, vaccine research, vaccine controversy
#RFK #science #vaccines #safe #dismissedKyrie Irving Likens Kevin Durant to ‘a Monument in a Science Museum’ for Epic Scoring | News, Scores, Highlights, Stats, and Rumors
Chris Coduto/Getty Images
Kevin Durant is such a perfect model of a pure scorer that he might belong in a museum.
Just ask former teammate Kyrie Irvig.
“He’s that guy that you see almost like a monument in a science museum of just like, what does a great scorer look like?” Irving said in a Friday piece by ESPN’s Tim MacMahon. “Seven feet, able to handle the ball, able to shoot over anybody, but also a fierce competitor.”
It’s hard to argue with Irving’s assessment.
Durant entered the league scoring as the 2007-08 Rookie of the Year and hasn’t looked back since. He is still putting up astonishing numbers at the age of 36 and enters Friday’s game against the Golden State Warriors averaging 27.3 points a night.
That means it should only take him three or four more games to score the 94 points he needs to become just the eighth player in NBA history to score 30,000 career points. He will join legendary names such as Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain and Kobe Bryant when he does so.
Only Jordan (10) and Chamberlain (seven) have more scoring titles than Durant’s four, and MacMahon noted he, Larry Bird and Steve Nash are the only players in league history with multiple 50/40/90 shooting-split seasons.
That’s not bad company to keep.
As Irving described, Durant is a scoring machine who can find the basket a variety of ways. He remains unstoppable even at this stage of his career and has been a bright spot for a Suns team that is battling through inconsistency with a 24-22 record that has them in ninth place in the Western Conference standings.
But they will be a threat to any opponent in the playoffs as long as Durant is on the floor.
In a recent interview, Brooklyn Nets star Kyrie Irving had high praise for his teammate Kevin Durant, likening him to “a monument in a science museum” when it comes to his epic scoring ability.Irving, who has been playing alongside Durant this season, expressed his admiration for the way Durant dominates on the court with his scoring prowess. “Kevin is like a monument in a science museum, just towering over everything and leaving everyone in awe,” Irving said.
Durant, who is known for his scoring prowess and ability to take over games, has been putting up impressive numbers this season. His combination of size, skill, and shooting touch makes him a truly unique talent in the NBA.
Fans and analysts alike have been marveling at Durant’s performances, with many considering him a frontrunner for the MVP award this season. With Irving also playing at an elite level, the Nets are shaping up to be a serious contender in the Eastern Conference.
As the season progresses, all eyes will be on Durant and Irving as they look to lead the Nets to a deep playoff run. With their chemistry on and off the court, the duo has the potential to be one of the most dynamic tandems in the league.
Stay tuned for more updates on Durant, Irving, and the Brooklyn Nets as they continue their quest for an NBA championship.
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Data Science: The Hard Parts: Techniques for Excelling at Data Science by Daniel
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Data Science: The Hard Parts: Techniques for Excelling at Data Science by DanielData science is a challenging field that requires a combination of technical skills, domain knowledge, and problem-solving abilities. In his book “Data Science: The Hard Parts,” Daniel provides valuable insights and techniques for excelling in this complex and rapidly evolving field.
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Data science is a complex and evolving field that requires a combination of technical skills, domain knowledge, and problem-solving abilities. While many people are drawn to the field for its promise of exciting projects and high salaries, the reality is that success in data science requires hard work and dedication.In this post, we will explore some of the key techniques that can help you excel in the field of data science. From mastering programming languages like Python and R to developing a deep understanding of statistics and machine learning algorithms, there are many skills that you need to cultivate in order to become a successful data scientist.
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In addition to technical skills, successful data scientists also possess a strong foundation in problem-solving and critical thinking. Data science projects often involve tackling complex and ambiguous problems, and being able to break down these problems into manageable tasks is essential for making progress. By approaching problems systematically and creatively, you can develop innovative solutions that drive business value.
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Data Science – the Hard Parts : Techniques for Excelling at Data ScienceData science is a complex and ever-evolving field that requires a diverse set of skills and techniques to excel in. In this post, we will explore some of the key areas that can be challenging for data scientists and provide tips on how to overcome them.
One of the hardest parts of data science is dealing with messy and unstructured data. This can include missing values, outliers, and inconsistent formats. To tackle this challenge, it is important to have a strong understanding of data cleaning techniques such as imputation, outlier detection, and normalization. Additionally, having a solid grasp of data visualization tools can help in identifying patterns and trends in the data.
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